Sheep Heart Dissection

The pericardium is the outer most membrane of the heart that secretes a fluid that lubricates the heart to prevent friction.

The arteries of the heart are made of smooth muscle and are more elastic and thicker than the veins.

The auricles are ear-like flaps on the top of the heart that allow the heart to receive more blood.

The ventricles have thicker and more muscular walls than the atria because they are responsible for providing the body with oxygenated blood.

Coronary Sinus:


Inferior Vena Cava:


The Right Atrioventricular Valve (Tricuspid Valve) and the Left Atrioventricular  Valve (Bicuspid Valve (Mitral)



Tricuspid Valve

If the valves were not "anchored," blood would leak back into the atrias which can lead to heart failure.

Semilunar Valves make sure the blood is going in the right direction. They prevent backflow from the arteries to the ventricles during ventricle diastole. The semilunar  valve also helps maintain pressure on major arteries.

The right of the heart is responsible for receiving blood, if one of the right side valves was not working, then blood would get stuck in the lower part of the body, causing swelling in the feet and ankles.

The left side of the heart is responsible for pumping blood to the body. If one of the left side valves was not working, then blood flow would be reduced to the body, causing in low oxygen to the body, creating tiredness.



The left side of the heart is thicker and more muscular than the right side, because the left side of the body is responsible for pumping blood to the entire body, whereas the right side is thinner and smaller because the blood only has to go the lungs.

Video of our sheep heart dissection:
Part 1: https://youtu.be/tQwVt3rncsI
Part 2: https://youtu.be/Wlam1BY1SXk

Citations:
"ANATOMY - Health And Human Sciences Mbbs Year 2 with X at University of Queensland - StudyBlue." StudyBlue. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2015.
"Pericardium and Heart Dissector." Electronic Companion Guide for Dissection of the Human Body. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2015.
"Heart Valve Surgery - Series." Mercury Web. Mercury Web, n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2015.

Unit 3 Reflection: The Circulatory and Respiratory System

The circulatory system is a fluid-filled network of tubes (or vessels) throughout which materials move between the environment and the cells of a multi cellular animal; it's a system that transports materials like oxygen and glucose needed by the cells and removes wastes like carbon dioxide and urea, fro the cells.
The respiratory system delivers O2 and removes CO2 through the nose, pharynx, larynx, tranchea, bronchi, bronchial branches, and lungs.
The cardio system works by pumping blood through the four chambers of the heart to deliver oxygenated blood to the body's cells via the arteries and return deoxygenated blood via the veins. Deoxygenated blood enters the heart via the superior/inferior vena cava into the right atrium then it gets pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. From there it is pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery and to the lungs  where the deoxygenated blood is converted to oxygenated blood and reenters the heart via the pulmonary veins into the left atrium. From there the blood is pumped through the bicuspid mitral valve into the left ventricle and then pumped through the aortic semilunar valve into the arch of aorta. From there the oxygenate blood is transported through the entire body. The oxygen is used up by the body and once again deoxygenated returns to the heart and the cycle begins again. But else is in the blood? What is blood?

Blood is composed of red and white blood cells, platelets, and plasma. RBCs, cells that lack nuclei, mitocondria, and cannot divide function for regulation, transportation, and protection. WBCs main function is to fight different types of infection.

This is all great but there are many reasons why these systems can go wrong.

Cardiovascular health is a measurement of how well your cardio system can work. A heart attack can happen when blood supply to the myocardium, the middle thickest muscular tissue of the heart that is responsible for contraction is severely reduced and is usually caused by atherosclerosis, the build up of plague along your blood vessels. A stroke is a brain injury that occurs when blood suppl to part of the brain is interrupted and is usually caused by blood clots.

One can improve their cardio vascular health by excising, not smoking, choosing a healthy diet high in HDL (good cholesterol) and low in LDL (bad cholesterol).

I hope to learn more about the diseases of the respirator system, like Cystic Fibrosis and Chronic Bronchitis. What is mucus and why do those people with those diseases make more of it? Also I want to know more about how a stroke can affect the brain in long-term situations. How does not getting blood to a certain place of the brain affect the brain. Are there more sensitive parts of the brain, more susceptible for a stroke, brain injury?

Reflecting on my progress:

I was really able to understand this unit because of the clear system, the diseases got kind of confusing but I was still able to understand it by thinking about it in terms of the systems. I enjoyed working in collaborative situations for example in the chalk drawing activity of the heart and sheep heart dissection.

In terms of my health goals, I am actually getting more sleep as I am trying to push myself to sleep before 12 and wake up no later than 4:30. I also am eating more eggs to get my protein in my diet, something that was lacking two months ago. 

 

Blood Pressure Virtual Lab

From http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/virtual_labs_2K8/labs/BL_14/

Follow the virtual lab procedure, and answer the questions below.  Answer in complete sentences. Please leave spaces between questions and your answers.

1. What factors are known to cause increases in blood pressure?

Lack of exercise, a high-salt diet, family history, and alcohol consumption are factors known to cause an increase in blood pressure.

2. Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.

Many younger children, ages 11-17, do not drink therefore their alcohol consumption is very low or nothing. Because of this, their blood pressure would be lower than men of age group 25-44 because they drink more.  Also students males and females, ages 18-24, might eat a greater amount of high sodium foods and drink more alcohol therefore causing high blood pressure.

3. What sorts of problems might a person develop who has chronic hypertension?

People with chronic hypertension may develop coronary artery disease; congestive heart failure; kidney failure; aneurysm; stroke or other health problems.

4. Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.

I observed that men in the 35-54 age category are in the highest risk for hypertension. There were four out of the ten men who had high risk of hypertension, all with various clear indicators as reasons for a high blood pressure. One guy checked for alcohol consumption and lack of exercise. One guy checked for high salt diet and another had a family history of hypertension ( the age range seems reasonable as this is the most likeliest time for genetic conditions to take affect, show symptoms.)  In the 45-54 age range, half the men had a high risk for hypertension and two guys had all of the indicators checked. On the other hand, only three women age range 35-54 had high risk for hypertension.

5. Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?

The results did not support my hypothesis that students males and females, ages 18-24, eat a greater amount of high sodium foods and drink more alcohol therefore causing high blood pressure. The older one gets the higher at risk he/she is for getting high blood pressure and it is most common in older males. Bad decisions made as students affect you when you get older and still maintain a lifestyle of bad choices.

6. During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?

There was only one female, age range 18-24 with a blood pressure of  135/95 because she checked for high sodium diet and alcohol consumption.

7. List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?

Based on my results those who checked for high sodium diets had higher blood pressure, which is why I believe that is the greatest risk factor that is most closely associated with hypertension.

8. What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?

Additional fat tissue in the body needs oxygen and nutrients in order to live, which requires the blood vessels to circulate more blood to the fat tissue. This increases the workload of the heart because it must pump more blood through additional blood vessels. More circulating blood also means more pressure on the artery walls. Higher pressure on the artery walls increases the blood pressure. In addition, extra weight can raise the heart rate and reduce the body's ability to transport blood through the vessels. Obesity alone does not cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure. Many factors can cause high blood pressure, including stress, high levels of sodium, lack of calcium, lack of potassium from eating too little fruits and vegetables, and lack of physical activity.

Measuring Blood Pressure and Pulse

Blood pressure us a measure of the force exerted by the blood on the wall of the arteries. Systolic pressure is the result of the contraction of the ventricles (normal 110-140). Diastolic pressure is measured during the ventricle relaxation period (normal 70-90). My average systolic pressure is 110 and my average diastolic pressure is 75, so my blood pressure is 110/75. The equipment we used to measure blood pressure was a sphygmonometer and a stethoscope. The equipment I used to measure pulse (heart rate) was my hand to measure the radial(wrist) and carotid(neck) pulse rate and the stethoscope to measure the the heart pulse on the chest. We cannot use the the thumb pulse because the thumb has its own pulse that can disturb the regular heart pulse.   A sphygmonometer can be used by tying the cuff around the upper arm and then pump the air bulb until you see on the gauge reads 150. Slowly let go of the air until it you can hear a swooch, that is your systolic pressure and then when you can hear nothing that is your diastolic pressure.

Unit 2 Health Reflection

What is health? There are five pillars of health; they are nutrition, the nutrients needed to support growth and energy needs: exercise, using body to give energy and stave off disease: sleep, rest and restore body: stress, managing constant changes to body and mind: and social, the way we interact within our environment. On a scale of one to ten, one being the worst and ten being the best, I would rate myself a seven and the rest of SHS the same, a seven. Yes, we are able to wake up each morning and carry on with school and turn in our assignments but most of us are unable to fully concentrate during class, and that is because most of us don't get enough sleep (one of the pillars of health), a common problem among teenagers. One way to promote greater health and wellness on campus would be to encourage students to get more sleep. Students should not be awake at three in the night and they should get to sleep by twelve the latest. But unfortunately this is easier said then done because of the large workload many students at SHS have.
One of the major essential understandings of this unit is that hormones like insulin, leptin, glucagon, and cortisol are chemicals messengers that help regulate body mechanisms, maintain homeostasis and thus keeping one healthy. The six classes of nutrients include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. The amount of nutrients we need varies based on age, sex, body type, activity level, and health status. Regular physical activity reduces risks of many adverse health outcomes and that if you do opt for a greater intensity workout, you can do less of it to gain the benefits. Sleep is a sensory shutdown and is immediately reversible. During sleep your body releases hormones essential for growth and development, that is why kids need more sleep, and sleep is also necessary to cope with the day's stresses. There are three stages of stress, alarm phase, resistance phase, and exhaustion phase.
Through this unit, I have learned that there are so many things I can do keep up health. For example I could choose foods rich in fiber, high in Omega-3, and much more proteins than what I am eating now. Before this unit, I hadn't known that Omega-3 is important for brain and heart health. The only type of exercise I get is Bollywood dancing that I do for only about three to four hours a week. Bollywood dancing is a form of aerobic exercise and I need to do more yoga anaerobic exercise and more muscle-strengthening workouts. Also I wouldn't hurt for me to sleep in an extra hour or two over the weekends to make up my sleep debt over the week.
I still don't understand that if the body secretion of oxytocin helps the body reduce stress, why do women release oxytocin, the adrenalin needed to push, when giving birth? Doesn't that add to the stress of physical labor?
For the next unit I will ask more questions during the lecture to build upon the information released and help me relate it to real life issues.
In the article, " A Long Night's Journey into the Day," the author describes sleep as something that is like a switch and that once you are asleep and dreaming you won't be able to realize that you are dreaming. I, along with some of my friends, have experienced lucid dreaming; we are able to realize that we are dreaming, we are sleeping and so this contradicts what the article said.

My health goals are to get more sleep and eat more protein and dairy.
Actions I will take to achieve my goals is to sleep more on the weekends and drink milk and  add beans and tofu to my diet.
My healthy life is important to me because I wish to have good health far onto my 30s and 40s. Good health means more happiness.
I will know when I reached my goals when I start gaining muscle mass and not abdominal fat and feel more alert and awake during the day.

Monday Wellness Reflection

I thought having a Monday wellness about probiotics would be something interesting and new for the class students because we would have them taste homemade yogurt. I was inspired to do this idea because ever since I was young my mom used to make homemade yogurt and I found it really interesting how milk could become a solid from a liquid just by heating it. The process of heating the milk is necessary to change the protein structure in milk so it sets as a solid instead of separating. This process of heating and then gives the chance for the milk to ferment and by adding a live culture, from a previous yogurt sample, the milk will transform into yogurt, The yogurt now has new properties that include taste, texture, and scientific benefits.  I also find it fascinating that my family has been using the same ongoing culture for decades, from great-grandparents to me. We got it from India in 1998, when I was born, and that's when the India culture mixed with American milk. Because of this I feel like the culture has brought this kind of unity among my extended family, who also use the same culture. By using a small spoonful of the previous batch of yogurt and mixing it into the heated milk before it solidifies you are preserving the culture, a piece of your past.
While I was researching the probiotics, the most interesting thing I found was the some of the indirect benefits of it. I hadn't known yogurt could help in allergies and asthma. I found it cool and ironic that yogurt helps with lactose intolerance and then I found out that it helps build immunity to lactose if taken in small doses.  Learning about the benefits of yogurt is really beneficial for our class in terms of health and wellness because most students don't acknowledge probiotics as part their diet, when it is really essential to keep your digestive and excretory systems clean and healthy. A lot of students also eat junk foods, like fatty foods or preservatives, and yogurt can help cleanse all the toxins from the stomach from the bad ones. The "good" bacteria will help fight off the "bad" bacteria. I also found it interesting that most store bought yogurts do not in fact contain the active cultures homemade yogurts and even if they do they contain so many preservatives and artificial colors and sugars that it kills culture thus negating its benefits.
On the scale of 1-10, I would rate myself a 7 because our presentation did not go as I hoped. I hadn't known how hard it would be to make yogurt in class; it a difficult process that requires a lot of home utensils and things that a laboratory class does not have. Plus the making of yogurt is not specially an interactive one, a lot of it is just waiting around. It was hard to come up with other ideas for in class discussion and activities relating to probiotics. I fell like as presenters we ran out of ideas to engage the audience, but I genuinely was interested about the topic.
Through my research I also figured out that there are other types of probiotics like sauerkraut, miso soup, and even some cheeses that provide the same benefits as yogurt. I wish to try them in the future and be aware of its benefits.

I've been tracking my Calories!- My Nutrition Analysis

From September 15-17, I have started to track my food intake to see if I reach my target intake (2200 calories) of carbohydrates, vegetables, fruits, dairy, and protein with 30-60 minutes of physical exercise. To my surprise I did not meet my target from most of the food groups on any day. For Day 1, the only one that I am not under is fruits and that’s only because I had fruits for breakfast. For Day 2, I was under for each category, even though my intake was the most balanced of all the days, with an average of 50% intake for each intake. For Day 3, however I was “OK” for grains and vegetables and under 10% for the other three categories I was 37% for dairy, and under 5% for fruits and protein. Because I am a vegetarian, it was hard to keep up my protein and on Day 3 the only form of protein I had was from the hazelnuts from the Nutella I had on my bread- and we all know that nutella doesn’t really have hazelnuts. On Day 2, I had specifically go search for protein to increase my protein intake, so I digged up some old Macadamia nuts I had in the back of my pantry and even that wasn’t enough. And because I dislike regular milk and I drink almond milk instead, my dairy intake was low too - but the almond milk did increase my protein intake. To get the right amount of fruits without increasing any other category, I had to substitute a grainy snack for plain fruits.

There are multiple ways that I can improve my died. I could eat a more mixed arrangement of nuts to increase my protein intake and eat a cup of yogurt each day or add cheese to my diet - but those would have to be an extra item instead of substituting it for something else. And maybe I could pack a box of fruits for snack to school, again another extra item instead of substituting. I think my vegetables and grains are on the right track and I get enough of those because I eat a lot of those for dinner, as I mentioned in my previous blog post about health.

I think I made smart decisions at the Falcon Market activity for example I choose to drink tea instead of coffee which significantly reduces my fat and sugar calories. Since I don’t actually eat too much frozen foods, I need not be worried about all the consequences of frozen food because fresh food is much healthier. My mom shops at the local farmer’s market every Saturday so half of our vegetable and fruit produce at home is organic and seasonal. My glycemic index is intermediate, which is good because a high GI meal will increase blood sugar.  My BMI of 18.88 is also in the normal percentile, but what BMI neglects is the amount of muscle fat a person has. I also don’t consume too much of preserved snacks and if it all I do, my mom makes sure to get whatever is organic. The only major thing I have to worry about is that I have not been prioritizing protein, which I’ll try to do in the future by buying more proteins, I also don’t eat fast food other than Chipotle, which is a pretty healthy option if eaten in moderate (once a week for me).

If I had the chance to coach someone on proper health and nutrition I would not because I don’t think I hold a good example, but if I had the opportunity I would warn them to be aware of keeping up their protein, dairy, and fruit intake just like I have to. I would tell tell to reduce their intake of sugary foods, like cookies and cake and instead eat fresh seasonal foods instead.

Day 1 09/15/15-

Day 2 09/16/15-

Day 3 09/17/15-

Why is Health important to me?

Maintaining my health has probably been one of my constant battles especially within the past two years. I can attribute that to stress, one of the pillars of health. I define health as combination of mental, physical, and social well-being as well as being free of illness and disorder. Health is a dynamic condition resulting from a body's constant adjustment and adaptation in response to stresses and changes in the environment for maintaining an inner equilibrium called homeostasis. The five pillars of health are nutrition, exercise, sleep, stress, and social happiness. The hardest pillar to uphold for me would be nutrition because I tend to down carbohydrates in response to the excess stress and lack of sleep especially in junior year. Because of I have severe and immediate allergies to heat, pollen, and dust and must take a lot of medication for it, my body feels constantly exhausted. This has taken a negative effect on my exercise regiment. I have been Bollywood dancing since elementary but had to quit last year because I was so fatigued from dancing and allergies that I couldn't focus on school work. But despite all the setbacks, this year I have started dancing again and I hope that will keep my fitness high because it is a very cardio active sport. Because of my mom and all the well balanced meals she cooks for me, my nutrition is also not that great of a problem. Even though I do eat a lot of carbohydrates my dance will allow me to burn them.

The Five Pillars of Health

 

Types of Tissue- Under the Microscope

Histology is the study of tissues and to learn more about the subject in class we did a exploratory lab, by examining various tissue types under a microscope. The four types of tissues are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. We studies three types of epithelial tissues, tissues that cover a body surface or lines a body cavity  (organs). Some characteristics that help define epithelial tissues are continuous sheets, avascular, basal lamina and be classified by their shape and layers; simple, stratified, pseudostratified, squamous, cubodial, and columnar. Connective tissue, cells that fill the spaces between organs and tissues, and provides structural and metabolic support for other tissues and organs, can be broken down into two branches; proper and specialized. Under the microscope, it was easy to determine dense regular/irregular, loose adipose, bone, blood, and cartilage knowing the characteristics of each type of connective cells, like for example adipose cells are big and white because of their large vacuoles used to store fat. There are types of muscle tissue, skeletal, cardiac, and smooth and each was easy to determine because of their characteristics, like for example smooth cells are elliptical in shape and non-striated. Because of their dendrites, axons, and large nuclei, nervous tissue is also easy to determine.

Unit 1 Reflection

This unit was mainly about histology,the study of tissues, and an overall general introduction into anatomy and physiology. This included topics such as how to use to use anatomical terms to precisely describe the location of features in an organism, an introduction to homeostasis and the systems of the human body,the hierarchy from atom to biosphere, the four biological macromolecules, and a breif overview of the structure and functions of the organelles in a cell.
One essential question of this unit was how does the structure of a tissue- or anything- relate to it's physiology. There are different ways to classify epithelial cells depending on their structure (simple/ stratified/ squamous/ cubodial/ columnar) they have different structures. For example pseudostratified columnar cells are good at maximizing diffusion.
In general one can say form fits function when relating anatomy to physiology.
I had known that cells make up tissues and that there are different types of tissue ( I recall that from freshman biology and APBiology) but through this unit I learned that there are four types of tissues epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. I hadn't even know about the various classifications of epithelial tissues until this unit.
But I still don't full understand how I can determine what type of epithelial tissue it is given a microscope sample. I hard to differentiate between cubodial and squamous and when it is stratified or pseudostratified. It seems simple in drawings but once you look at the real thing it is kind of confusing. The Quizlet terms were hard to differentiate and I was only able to figure out my memorizing the color of the dyes. For the next unit I will ask the teacher if I am confused about an issue before the test.
In a real world application I think knowing the anatomical terms would be beneficial to become a surgeon (the type of doctor I want to be). As a surgeon, one would need to know how to cut a human body using terms like midsagital, transverse, frontal, and/or oblique. I have heard surgeons in the show "Grey's Anatomy" use terms like that. 

Oocytes, What Makes Them Special?

Oocytes- Female Reproductive Cells

Oocytes are haploid cells, found in the ovary that might undergo meiotic division to form an ovum. A vitelline layer coated with protein receptors lines the outside of the egg plasma membrane of an oocyte. Cortical granule content lines the inside of the plasma membrane that form into cortical granule vesicles. Oocytes have all the same organelles of a typical eukaryotic cell but are specialized towards making an ovum during a female reproductive system and are present in females until menopause. Oocytes are classified under ovarian tissue.

Sperm cells attaching to Oocyte Cell as the first step in the formation of an ovum

WORKS CITED:
"Oocyte." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 31 Aug. 2015. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oocyte
"Egg Cell." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d. Web. 31 Aug. 2015. URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_cell

Tao, Tao, and Alfonso Del Valle. "Human Oocyte and Ovarian Tissue Cryopreservation and Its Application." Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics. Springer US, n.d. Web. 31 Aug. 2015. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2596676/

Why is it Sweet?

During class today, we tasted different types of sugars to determine how the structure of a carbohydrate affects its taste. The eight types of sugars were sucrose, glucose (dextrose), fructose, galactose, maltose, lactose, starch, and cellulose. We rated each sugar out of 0-200 in sweetness. Through the results of the lab, I speculate that the number of rings determines how sweet a sugar molecule is. Sucrose, a disaccharide, served as the control for this experiment, with a sweetness of 100. The color of sucrose is white and its texture was granular. For example the sweetest of the sugars, fructose,with a rating of 200, is a monosaccharide, a one ring structure. Glucose, another monosaccharide, followed with a rating of 110). The only exception to this rule was galactose with a rating of 50, even though it is a monosaccharide. We gave lactose, a disaccharide, a rating of 60, maltose, a disaccharide, a 10, and starch and cellulose, both polysaccharides, a rating of because they were the most bitter.

I predicted that fructose would be the sweetest because I have seen the ingredient high fructose corn syrup in juices like Capri-sun, sodas like Pepsi, plenty of sugary breakfast cereals like Cinnamon Toast Crunch, processed pastries, candy bars, cookies, and cakes. I also recall that lactose and galactose as being part of those baby supplemental milk powders. Although I have never had beer, I know maltose is in beer. Cellulose is found in vegetables with many leaves like brussel sprouts and starch is found in rice.

According to Dr. Robert Margolskee on NPR news, sweetness is detected by taste buds on your tongue. He says,"When you get a sweet substance, a suar or something artificial like saccharine, it stimulates these receptor proteins on the very outer tips of the sweet-responding taste cells." According to Anthony Domanico, author of the article, "Why Are Some Sugars Sweeter Than Others?" on CNet, some sugars are sweeter than others because they have a more triangular structure at the molecular level as explained by the Sweetness Triangle theory. He says, "This[the triangular shape] helps it[the sugar molecule] bind to the sweetness receptors in our tongues, and the better the molecule fits the Sweetness triangle, the sweeter the taste." . According to an article on popsci.com by Emily Elert, "FYI:Why Do Some Foods Taste Bad To Some People And Good To Others," the reason why people taste differently is because the number of papillae- bumps on our tongues filled with taste buds- varies from one individual to another. And According to Pubmed Health, there are taste buds for sweetness, sour, salty, bitter, and umami and some people might have more papillae than others to host the various taste buds. The greater the number of papillae the more overwhelming the taste is. This is the reason why we were able to rank the same sugar samples differently.


Works Cited:

Palca, Joe. "Getting a Sense of How We Taste Sweetness." NPR. NPR, n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2015. URL: http://www.npr.org/2011/03/11/134459338/Getting-a-Sense-of-How-We-Taste-Sweetness
Anthony, Domanico. "Why Are Some Sugars Sweeter than Others? Chew on This - CNET." CNET. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2015. URL: http://www.cnet.com/news/why-are-some-sugars-sweeter-than-others-chew-on-this/
Elert, Emily. "FYI: Why Does Some Food Taste Bad To Some People And Good To Others?" Popular Science. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2015. URL: http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2012-03/fyi-why-does-some-food-taste-bad-some-people-and-good-others
How Does Our Sense of Taste Work? U.S. National Library of Medicine, n.d. Web. 28 Aug. 2015. URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0072592/